BUFFALO POX IN INDIA

Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 2006, 25 (3), 981-987
An outbreak of buffalopox
in buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis) dairy
herds in Aurangabad, India
R.K. Singh (1, 6), M. Hosamani (1), V. Balamurugan (1),
C.C. Satheesh (1), K.R. Shingal (2), S.B. Tatwarti (3), R.G. Bambal (3),
V. Ramteke (4) & Mahendra Pal Yadav (5)
(1) Division of Virology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar, Nainital District,
Uttaranchal-263 138, India
(2) Animal Husbandry, Disease Investigation Section, Aundh, Pune 411007, India
(3) Disease Investigation Section, Aundh, Pune 411007, India
(4) Animal Husbandry, Government of Maharashtra, Pune 411007, India
(5) Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar-UP-243 122, India
(6) Author for correspondence: email: rk_singh@email.com
Submitted for publication: 6 September 2005
Accepted for publication: 18 September 2006
Summary
An outbreak of buffalopox in domestic buffaloes, with high morbidity and
significant production loss, was recorded in the Aurangabad district of
Maharashtra State in India in November 2003. The disease was also associated
with several cases of human infection, particularly in milkers working with the
affected herds. Pox lesions were observed on the udder and teats of the majority
of the affected animals, while a few animals exhibited lesions on the
hindquarters, indicating possible generalised infection. A significant reduction in
milk yield was recorded following the outbreak. Milkers developed pox-like
lesions on the skin of the hands, forearms and forehead accompanied by fever
for three days, axillary lymphadenopathy and general malaise. Investigation of
the disease outbreak by virus isolation in Vero cell cultures and detection of viral
nucleotide sequences by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) confirmed the
aetiology of the disease.
Keywords
Buffalopox virus – Indian Buffalo – Polymerase chain reaction – Zoonosis.
Introduction
Buffalopox is an important zoonosis of domestic buffaloes
(Bubalus bubalis) associated with high morbidity and
productivity losses. Disease outbreaks often lead to
considerable reduction in the milk yield of affected dairy
herds in addition to a reduction in the working capacity of
infected animals. It has been estimated that production of
buffalo milk in the Asia-Pacific region exceeds 45 million
tons annually, of which 30 million originate from India (5).
Thus, the impact of this disease on the dairy industry and
economy in the region is highly significant. Buffalopox is
also recognised as an important zoonotic infection (9).
People born after 1977 are potentially susceptible to
infection with buffalopox virus, a close variant of vaccinia
virus (8, 16), because smallpox vaccination ceased
worldwide in 1980.
Buffalopox is prevalent throughout the major buffalorearing
areas of the world, and outbreaks have been
reported in many countries including Indonesia, Egypt and
Pakistan (12). The disease has been recorded since 1934 in
different parts of India (2, 3, 7, 11, 14, 17, 19) and in the
last decade outbreaks of buffalopox have been reported
from many states including Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Karnataka (unpublished
data). The disease is caused by buffalopox virus (BPXV), a
prototype member of the Orthopoxvirus (OPV) genus in the
family Poxviridae. In this paper, the authors report an
outbreak of buffalopox in dairy herds on the outskirts of
Aurangabad which caused high morbidity and production
losses in the affected herds and also zoonotic infections in
animal handlers and milkers.
Disease outbreak
and clinical picture
The outbreak of buffalopox occurred in November
2003 on the outskirts of the Aurangabad district of
Maharashtra in India. The outbreak occurred in ten herds
containing buffaloes of mixed ages and of predominantly
the Jafarabadi breed and the Jafarabadi
Surti crossbreed
of domestic buffalo. The farms were individually owned
with a total population of animals at risk of approximately
400. The overall morbidity reached 45% (a total of 180 of
the 400 buffaloes). Approximately 80% of the affected
buffaloes (which were aged between 6 and 12 years) were
Jafarabadi and Jafarabadi
Surti dairy animals. The exact
number of buffalo bulls affected in the outbreak could not
be ascertained. However, two buffalo bulls intended for
breeding were found to be mildly affected in one of
the herds under investigation; the lesions were confined to
the hindquarters in these cases.
Clinical signs, such as lesions on the udder, teats and
hindquarters of the affected animals, were suggestive of
pox infection (Fig. 1). Characteristic circumscribed
ulcerated lesions with raised edges were observed, which
were painful on palpation. About 40% to 50% of the
affected animals showed mastitis and reduced milk yield,
mainly due to secondary bacterial infections. However,
four cases of mastitis and stricture of the teat canal directly
attributable to pox lesions were observed and permanent
loss of milk production as a consequence of mastitis was
reported in one case.
The exact source of the infection could not be ascertained.
However animal trade between villages (Dhulia and
Chauvi Bazar) was evident from the history, and this may
have contributed to the spread of the infection. The
outbreak started a month before the survey began, and
only three to four herds showed fresh clinical cases of
disease at the time of investigation.
Materials and methods
Collection and preparation of clinical materials
Scabs from pox lesions were collected primarily from the
thigh region, udder and teats of affected buffaloes. Blood
and milk samples were also collected from affected
animals, and from in-contact animals with no apparent
lesions, for serodiagnosis. The scab materials were ground
with a pestle in a mortar containing sterile sand. Phosphate
buffered saline (PBS) was added to prepare a 10% (w/v)
suspension. The samples were stored at –20°C until further
use, either for the extraction of DNA or for the isolation of
virus in cell culture.
Counterimmunoelectrophoresis
Preliminary screening of the scab and serum samples was
carried out using counterimmunoelectrophoresis (CIE)
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 25 (3) 982
Fig. 1
Clinical lesions in buffaloes and milkers infected with buffalopox virus
Typical pox lesions found on the udder/teats of milk buffalo (Fig. 1a) and pre-inguinal region (Fig. 1b) of one of the affected buffalo bulls, which was
used for breeding purposes. The disease was also associated with human infections, with typical pox lesions noticed on the fingers (Fig. 1c) and
forearm (Fig. 1d) of milkers
a) b) c) d)
(18) with a reference antigen (BPXV-BP4) and its
hyperimmune serum (HIS). The BPXV antigen was derived
from infected Vero cells by clarification of the infected cell
culture fluid then concentrated by precipitating the viral
antigen with 8% (w/v) polyethylene glycol (PEG 6000).
Virus isolation
For virus isolation, scab samples were ground in sterile PBS
to make a 10% (w/v) suspension. The tissue triturate was
repeatedly frozen (at -80°C) and thawed 2 to 3 times and
then subjected to ultrasonication for 2 min at 30%
amplitude in pulse bursts of 9 s duration with 9 s intervals
to extrude virus particles from the cells and inhibit
bacterial and fungal contamination. Following clarification
at 6,000
g for 2 min in a microcentrifuge (Sigma 1-13,
Germany) 0.3 to 0.4 ml of the supernatant was treated
with gentamicin at a concentration of 40 µg/ml
(Gentamicin Injection, Cadilla Pharmaceuticals,
Ahmedabad, India) in Eagle’s Minimum Essential Medium
(EMEM) and inoculated onto Vero cell monolayers.
Ultrasonicated milk samples were similarly inoculated
onto Vero cell monolayers. Cells were incubated at 37°C
for one hour with intermittent shaking to allow adsorption
of virus. The virus inoculum was then decanted and the
infected cells were washed 4 to 5 times with serum-free
EMEM. Finally, the infected cells were fed with
maintenance medium containing 2% foetal calf serum and
incubated again at 37°C. Flasks were observed daily for the
appearance of cytopathic effect (CPE).
Viral deoxyribonucleic acid preparation
Total viral DNA was extracted either from scab material or
from infected cell culture fluid using the AuPreP™
DNA Extraction Kit (Life Technologies (India) Pvt Ltd,
New Delhi, India) following the manufacturer’s protocol.
DNA was extracted from a 200 µl initial volume of either
scab supernatant or infected cell culture fluid and finally
eluted in 50 µl of nuclease-free water for PCR.
Polymerase chain reaction
Viral DNA isolated from clinical material or cell culture
fluid was subjected to PCR for amplification of a fragment
of the A-type inclusion gene homologue (ATI) using the
following primer pair: CoPV03 (GGGATATCAAGGAAT
GCGA) and CoPV04 (TCCATATCAGCATTGCTTTC). The
full-length inclusion gene was amplified using the CoPV01
(TAAATGGAGGTCACGAAACT) and CoPV02 (TTCCCA
TTCACGTTCGCATG) primer pair (10, 15). For diagnostic
PCR, DNA samples prepared from BPXV-BP4-infected Vero
cells and uninfected Vero cells were also included in the
PCR reaction as positive and negative controls,
respectively. For amplification of the full-length gene,
camelpox virus DNA was used as the positive control,
while uninfected Vero cells were employed as the negative
control. The PCR products were analysed by 1% agarose
gel electrophoresis stained with ethidium bromide to
visualise amplified products.
Cloning and sequencing
The PCR products were gel-eluted using a commercial kit
following the manufacturer’s protocol (Qiagen, Hilden,
Germany) and cloned into plasmid vector pTZ57R/T (MBI
Fermentas, Hanover, Maryland, USA). Recombinant
plasmids purified using the SV minipreps plasmid
purification system (Promega Corporation, Madison,
Wisconsin, USA) were screened for the verification of the
cloned insert by both PCR and restriction endonuclease
digestion. The nucleotide sequence of the cloned insert
was determined by the dideoxy chain termination method
using an automated DNA sequencer (ABI Prism 377,
Applied Biosystems, Foster City, California, USA). The
sequence similarity of the gene fragment of the inclusion
gene of BPXV to other OPV sequences available in the
GenBank database was determined using the Clustal W
program of the Lasergene 6.0 package (DNASTAR Inc.,
Madison, Wisconsin, USA).
Serum neutralisation test
Serum samples collected from both clinically affected and
in-contact animals were subjected to a serum
neutralisation test for detecting antibodies against BPXV
using standard procedures (1). The serum samples (in
duplicate rows) were diluted in Eagle’s maintenance
medium in a two-fold dilution series from 1:2 to 1:64 in
flat-bottomed 96-well tissue culture plates. The reference
(50 µl/well) BPXV-BP4 virus suspension with a titre of
100 TCID50 in 50 µl was added to each serum well and the
mixture was incubated for one hour at 37°C in a
humidified CO2 incubator. An aliquot of 50 µl of Vero cell
suspension (approximately 1.5
106/ml) was added to
each well and the plates incubated. Serum (positive and
negative control sera), virus and cell controls were
included in the procedure. The plates were observed for
CPE for 3 to 4 days. The highest dilution of serum
inhibiting the CPE of virus at the 50% endpoint was taken
as the neutralising titre of the serum sample.
Results and discussion
Buffalopox is a highly contagious viral disease affecting
primarily buffaloes, its natural host, and can often be
transmitted to in-contact humans. The disease is
economically significant through a reduction in milk
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 25 (3) 983
production, impaired capacity to work and lowered meat
production in affected animals. Although the disease is
associated with almost no mortality in buffaloes, the
morbidity can be high (4, 7).
The disease occurs in epidemic form in India with several
outbreaks reported in recent years (7, 11, 17). As a result
of the cessation of smallpox vaccination of humans in
1980, cross-species infection with animal poxviruses such
as BPXV, which is closely related to vaccinia and variola
(smallpox) viruses, poses a significant public health risk.
Humans with the disease develop localised pox lesions on
the skin of the hands and/or forehead accompanied by
fever and regional lymphadenopathy.
The outbreak reported here occurred in buffalo herds
located in a small close-settled community. It was noted in
the history that most of these herds had recently acquired
at least one or more animals from the local markets in
the Dhulia or Satara districts, which are known to be
endemic for buffalopox. These introduced buffaloes were
the probable source of infection for the studied herds.
Disease was mostly noticed in dairy animals and the spread
of disease within a given herd was probably facilitated by
dairy personnel; each herd had a single milker. The owners
reported that a significant reduction in the milk yield of
affected animals occurred. Based on the data collected from
the farmers, a 38% to 69% reduction in milk yield was
recorded as a consequence of the outbreak, in addition to
the permanent reduction in milk yield that occurred in
some cases as a sequel to severe mastitis. The estimated
cost of the veterinary treatment of one animal was Rs.400
(just over US$ 8.5) per treatment, which corresponds to a
15% to 20% loss of income per month per animal during
the period of the outbreak. In milkers and other animal
handlers, multiple dermal lesions on the fingers and
forehead and solitary nodules on the forearm were typical
of pox infection (Fig. 1). Other clinical signs observed were
fever, which lasted about three days, lack of appetite,
enlarged axillary lymph nodes and general malaise.
Unfortunately, milkers were generally unwilling to provide
biopsies and serum samples for laboratory diagnosis to
confirm the disease and enable an estimate of the
prevalence of this zoonotic disease in the community to be
made. A number of earlier zoonotic cases of buffalopox
have also been reported in the literature (11, 13, 17,
19, 21).
Preliminary laboratory diagnosis of the disease in buffaloes
was carried out by CIE using HIS raised against the
reference BPXV-BP4 isolate (20). Details of the samples
collected and analysed by the various diagnostic tests are
given in Table I. Polymerase chain reaction using OPV
genus-specific ATI gene primers (CoPV03 and CoPV04)
resulted in amplification of a fragment of 552 base pairs
(bp), as expected (Fig. 2). Cloning and sequencing of the
ATI gene fragment amplicon was carried out to confirm the
fidelity of the PCR and sequence data were submitted to
the NCBI GenBank database (DQ190239). The current
BPXV isolate shared 99% sequence identity with vaccinia
virus (VV) WR (AY243312) and rabbitpox virus (RPV)
(AY484669), 97% with camelpox virus M96 (AF438165)
and camelpox virus CMS (AY009089), 95% with cowpox
virus GRI-90 (X94355) and 93% with cowpox virus BR
(AF482758). Sequence analysis of the partial inclusion
gene of BPXV (552 bp) revealed only 1% divergence from
VV and RPV, clearly indicating that BPXV is a variant strain
of VV. Buffalopox virus has previously been suggested to be
a variant of VV, based on its host range, clinical signs, and
biological and serological properties (7, 8, 16).
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 25 (3) 984
Table I
Analysis of clinical samples collected from the outbreak of
buffalopox in Maharashtra, India, in 2003
Number of samples giving
Sample positive results in the different Serum
type diagnostic tests neutralisation
Counterimmuno- Polymerase Virus titre
electrophoresis chain reaction isolation
Scabs (6)* 3/6 4/6 1/1 –
Milk (10) ND 0/10 2/3 –
Serum (27) 2/6 – – 14 sera tested
with titres
ranging from 1:2 to 1:8
* Figures in parentheses indicate the total number of samples collected
ND: not done
Fig. 2
Ethidium bromide-stained agarose gel electrophoresis
of polymerase chain reaction products of partial gene
of buffalopox virus A-type inclusion gene homologue using
CoPV03 and CoPV04 primers
Lane M: 100 base pair (bp) DNA ladder
Lane 1: amplicon of 552 bp fragment from BPXV-BP4 isolate as positive
control
Lane 2: negative control
Lanes 3, 4: amplicon from DNA isolated from scab material and infected
cell culture fluid (passage 2 in Vero cells infected with milk samples of
BPXV), respectively
M 1 2 3 4
552 bp
kbp
3.0
0.5
0.2
Amplification of the full-length inclusion gene, using the
CoPV01 and CoPV02 primer pair, was carried out for
diagnosis and further genetic characterisation of the virus.
The latter PCR amplifies a 3.7 kilobase (kb) product from
cowpox virus (15), a 3.2 kb product from BPXV and a
2.8 kb product from camelpox samples (Fig. 3). The
authors’ attempts to amplify the viral nucleic acid
sequences from milk failed. This could possibly be due to
the presence of PCR inhibitory substances in the milk
samples.
Virus isolation was successfully carried out in Vero cells
using skin scab and milk samples collected from infected
buffaloes. Cytopathic changes began with cell rounding
and clumping on day 2 post-infection (pi), and progressed
to formation of micro-plaques on days 3 to 4 pi followed
by degeneration of cells and finally complete detachment
of the monolayer by day 4 to 5 pi in the initial passage.
Similar cytopathic changes were observed in Vero cells
infected with the reference isolate of BPXV-BP4. Vero cells
were demonstrated to be a suitable cell culture system for
primary isolation of the virus, as cytopathic changes were
appreciable as early as three days after infection of the
preformed monolayer. Virus was successfully isolated from
two milk samples collected from affected buffaloes.
However, it required two blind passages in Vero cells to
produce appreciable CPE.
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 25 (3) 985
PCR using template DNA extracted from both scab
material and Vero cells infected with virus from milk
samples yielded the expected 552 bp product (Fig. 2). This
is probably the first report of isolation of virus from milk
samples collected from buffaloes with pox infection.
However, it is possible that the presence of the virus in the
milk samples was due to cross contamination from infected
teats during sampling. Regardless of the source of the virus,
milk can serve as a potential vehicle of infection for other
animals including suckling calves, and for milkers and
personnel handling the milk. The presence of capripox
virus in milk and other body fluids has been demonstrated
previously, as reviewed by Davies (6).
Serum samples collected from apparently infected and incontact
animals showed neutralising titres ranging from
1:2 to 1:8 using the BPXV-BP4 isolate in Vero cells. This
showed that the animals were in various stages of infection,
as the outbreak was noticed in the herds one month before
the incident was investigated. The outbreak reported here
was severe in terms of the extent of the morbidity (up to
50%) and reports of productivity loss by farmers.
In summary, this outbreak of buffalopox was confirmed by
virus isolation, serum neutralisation, PCR, and nucleic acid
sequencing. Given the zoonotic importance of buffalopox
infection and the high productivity losses in dairy herds,
outbreaks of the disease need to be carefully monitored.
Milkers, farmers and other livestock handlers should
receive education on control measures such as restriction
of movement of animals with lesions, basic hygiene
practices and within and between herd biosecurity. This
needs to be addressed to limit the spread and severity of
buffalopox outbreaks and thus reduce the economic and
public health impact of buffalopox on the community.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Director, Indian Veterinary Research
Institute, for providing the necessary facilities to carry out
this work. This work was funded by the Department of
Biotechnology of the Government of India.
Fig. 3
Polymerase chain reaction amplification of full length A-type
inclusion gene homologue of buffalopox and camelpox viruses
Lane M: 1 kilobase (kb) DNA ladder
Lane 1: amplicon corresponding to ~_ 3.2 kb from BPXV Aurangabad
2003 scab DNA
Lane 2: negative control showing no amplification
Lane 3: camelpox virus DNA used as positive control showing amplicon
of ~_ 2.8 kb
M 1 2 3
3.2 kbp
2.8 kbp
kbp
10.0
6.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 25 (3) 986
Foyer de variole du buffle dans des élevages
de bufflonnes laitières ( Bubalus bubalis) à Aurangabad, Inde
R.K. Singh, M. Hosamani, V. Balamurugan, C.C. Satheesh, K.R. Shingal,
S.B. Tatwarti, R.G. Bambal, V. Ramteke & Mahendra Pal Yadav
Résumé
Un foyer de variole du buffle s’est déclaré dans le district d’Aurangabad de l’état
de Maharashtra en Inde, en novembre 2003, provoquant chez les buffles
domestiques un taux de morbidité élevé ainsi qu’une baisse importante de la
production. La maladie a également été associée à plusieurs cas d’infection
humaine, notamment chez les ouvriers de traite. Des éruptions cutanées
caractéristiques de la variole sur les mamelles et les pis ont été observées chez
la plupart des bufflonnes affectées, avec quelques cas de lésions sur le train
postérieur, signe d’une possible infection généralisée. Une réduction importante
de la production de lait a été constatée suite à l’infection. Les symptômes
constatés chez les ouvriers de traite étaient une éruption cutanée au niveau des
mains, des avant-bras et du front, un accès de fièvre pendant trois jours, une
lymphadénopathie axillaire et un malaise généralisé. L’étiologie de la maladie a
pu être confirmée par isolement du virus sur des cellules Vero et détection des
séquences nucléotidiques au moyen de la technique d’amplification en chaîne
par la polymérase.
Mots-clés
Amplification en chaîne par la polymérase – Buffle d’Asie – Virus de la variole du buffle
– Zoonose.
Brote de viruela del búfalo en ganados de búfalas
( Bubalus bubalis) lecheras de Aurangabad (India)
R.K. Singh, M. Hosamani, V. Balamurugan, C.C. Satheesh, K.R. Shingal,
S.B. Tatwarti, R.G. Bambal, V. Ramteke & Mahendra Pal Yadav
Resumen
En noviembre de 2003, en el distrito de Aurangabad del estado indio de
Maharashtra se notificó un brote de viruela en búfalos domésticos que causó
una elevada morbilidad e importantes pérdidas en la producción. Hubo asimismo
varios casos de infección humana, sobre todo entre los muñidores que
trabajaban con los rebaños afectados. En las ubres y tetillas de la mayoría de las
hembras afectadas se observaron lesiones variólicas, y unos pocos ejemplares
mostraban también lesiones en los cuartos traseros, hecho indicativo de una
posible infección generalizada. Tras el brote se observó una sustancial caída en
la producción de leche. Los muñidores presentaban lesiones parecidas a las
variólicas en la piel de manos, antebrazos y frente, acompañadas de fiebre
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durante tres días, linfadenopatía axilar y malestar general. El estudio del brote
infeccioso, por aislamiento del virus en cultivos de células Vero y posterior
determinación por reacción en cadena de la polimerasa de sus secuencias
nucleotídicas, permitió confirmar la etiología de la enfermedad.
Palabras clave
Búfalo indio – Reacción en cadena de la polimerasa – Virus de la viruela del búfalo –
Zoonosis.